Behavioral and Cultural Constraints: Why Smoking, Drinking, and the "Masculine" Role Are Dragging Away Life

Many scientists hypothesize that lifespan is far more than just a biological issue. Dr. Reme points out that while significant biological differences cause the gender difference in lifespan, about half of this "difference"-that is, 3 to 4 years-can be eliminated through behavioral changes in men, including taking one aspirin daily to reduce the risk of heart attack. University of Pennsylvania biologist Ingrid Waldron suggests that the complex interplay between biology and behavior can explain most of the higher mortality rates among men. She notes that for seven leading causes of death, men are 100% or more more likely to die than women, and the two biggest risk factors for these seven killer diseases are behaviors predominantly found in men: smoking and drinking. Smoking causes heart disease, emphysema, and lung cancer; excessive drinking causes traffic and other accidents, cirrhosis, suicide, homicide, and, according to recent research, heart disease and stroke. Dr. Waldron concludes that in the United States today, these seven causes of death account for three-quarters of the gender difference in mortality rates. Heart disease alone can explain about one-third of the lifespan difference. She says that, behaviorally, smoking generally explains about half of the adult gender difference in mortality rates. Men have a more harmful smoking habit than women because they smoke more cigarettes and inhale more smoke each day. Besides excessive smoking and drinking, other socially encouraged behaviors that increase adult male mortality include: unsafe driving, especially drunk driving; accidental injuries; occupations involving exposure to carcinogens and other health hazards; illegal drug use; firearms use; hostile coronary syndrome; and poor self-care. It is often said that men die "early" because-directly or indirectly-they self-destruct. However, Dr. Waldron argues that it's not because they self-destruct, but because many men neither know healthy ways to cope with stress, nor how to take care of themselves, or know what to do but cannot motivate themselves to make healthy changes. In his book *The Dangers of Men*, Dr. Herb Goldberg describes the destructive, rigid conditions of men, or lifestyles conforming to the traditional male "blueprint." He says that cultural pressures have led men to accept a series of "gifts": early marriage, fatherhood, and hasty career choices and other major decisions that tie many men to work, mortgages, and unchosen lifestyles. Blindly accepting the roles of husband, father, provider, and protector has made many men angry, disappointed, isolated, weary, and defensive. Such men are prone to emotional and physical detachment, denying their weaknesses, and engaging in confrontational or "manly" behaviors through violence, vulnerability to accidents, and other life-threatening actions. In *The New Man*, Dr. Goldberg states that for such men, caring for their bodies means: less sleep; more mental strain; more restraint in drinking; less concern about what to eat; less need for help or reliance; more control and suppression of emotions; and the less concern for the body, the more manly they are. In its most perfect sense, "manliness" portrays an arrogant, strong, composed, resilient, adventurous, brave, and daring hunter/warrior upon whom women and children feel safe, cared for, and protected. The problem lies not only in these traditional masculine virtues themselves but also in the efforts made to cultivate men in contemporary society, which are gradually destroying men's health and well-being. There are signs that men are increasingly aware that the self-destructive aspects of rigid masculinity are costing them. More and more men are making healthier lifestyle choices by quitting smoking, exercising more, eating more fiber and less fat, using seatbelts, and being vigilant about sexually transmitted diseases. Now, men need-if they want to live longer-to learn to live in harmony with other men, women, and especially with themselves. American men tend to be solitary. To fulfill the need for intimacy, men need to let go of suspicion and hostility and learn to care for one another. Men must stop looking for external causes of physical and emotional illnesses and begin to reflect on what they have done to combat them.